Ethical Issues Are A Key Part Of Any Psychological Research.

Ethical issues are a key part of any psychological research. This refers to the appropriate codes of conduct which should be adhered to in any psychological research. In the past there has been many unethical studies carried out which has raised a variety of questions as to did the end justify the means, is this right? Should it have been done? For instance, Milgram (1963) study into obedience. However, at that moment in time no ethical guidelines were Brocken as they did not exist (Matta, R). Therefore, ethical guidelines were put in place stop these abuses of power and put an end to such questions. In the United Kingdom any research carried out by psychologists must apply with the guidelines set by the British Psychological Society†¦show more content†¦2007). However, even in these circumstances it is considered unethical and in the case that the deception cause distress the research is considered to be unacceptable. In order to compensate for any degree of deception resea rcher could provide participants with a debrief which is a full description of the nature of the study after the research has been carried out (Cardwell, M Flanagan, C. 2005). Milgram (1963) carried out a study into obedience in which deception was a main problem. Milgram wanted to see how far an individual would go into obeying an instruction from an authority figure even if it involve the harm of another. In the study participants were split into two groups: teachers and students, a confederate was always in the role of the learner. Students deliberately answered the questions wrong in which teachers were then told to administer and electric shock for every wrong answer given. Participants were deceived as they thought they were harming a real person, therefore causing them distress. However, Milgram and many others agreed that this deception was necessary to see the true nature of obedience as well as providing reliable and valid results. This allowed Milgram to provide results which no other in his field could have expected (Connolly, E. 2011). Physical and Psychological harm to participants is another ethical issue which often can occur in psychological research.Show MoreRelatedEthics And The Ethical Standards Essay1626 Words   |  7 PagesThe Ethical Standards were set up to implement direct rules for conduct as a psychologist. Most of the Ethical Standards were composed extensively to apply against psychologists in an assortment of roles, even though the utilization of an Ethical Standard may differ which is contingent upon the unique situation. The Ethical Standards are not exhaustive. 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This question is answered by the six principles of ethics, Respect

Knowledge Management and Risk Strategies †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Knowledge Management and Risk Strategies. Answer: Introduction In this report, an implementation of services management strategy is performed. The outcomes mainly provide brief history information of Qantas Airline in Australia and its objectives, goals, mission, and morals. The aims of the company show that it targets at providing safe and secure air travel services globally, delivering excellent services to the clients at the same time. However, investigation projector of the historical, current and upcoming of Qantas shows that the company has made huge growth in the previous year which makes it the main transporter of Australia it is also commonly called first-class air travel service provider. The best long ways carrier is also connected with Qantas airline, and the forthcoming events predict that it objects that achieving further growth through co-joining alliances with the other developed airline worldwide. Qantas airline is the premium airline situated in Australia and provides satisfactory air travel services to its customers across the globe. The scope of the report is restricted to the implementation of services management strategy of Qantas Airline with foremost emphasis will be placed on analyzing a brief background of the company, its mission, goals, and standards and the companys up-to-date financial position (Belloc, 2007). To sum up to this, assessment of the strengths and weaknesses, threats, and chances of Qantas using SWOT examination. It is then monitored by the analysis of the service management strategies of the organization and the evaluation of functional levels which assists in the effective accomplishment of the management strategy. The report findings would be added to the conclusion section. Background information of the company Qantas is considered as one of the largest airlines in Australia which connects over 900 and above destinations worldwide with over 25 airline partners. Since its commencement in Queensland in the year 1920, Qantas has developed to become the leading brand in the global aviation industry. It also has some prominent brands operating locally, domestic and international travelers and shipping category including in-flight catering and travel routines. Since its inception, Qantas Airline has placed considerable effort to become the largest airline in the world with a good reputation of being the toughest brands in Australia. The company has been fruitful in developing itself as the securer airline by achieving continuous operational productivity and also by ensuring that they employ qualified staffs more so, engineering and maintenance team (Chaffey, 2011). Their core business is the airline business which comprises traveling services to passengers traveling from one area to different des tination. The company operates under two distinctive brand names these are Qantas and Jetstar, and it operates throughout Australia and international countries. Generally, it has been a fruitful trademark within the airline industry. Mission, vision, and values of the company As far as the Qantass mission is concerned, its long-term strategic mission is to work as the worlds paramount top airline as well the best low-fare transporter. In order to be more successful, the vision, mission, and values of the company largely depend on the growth of the company alongside the leadership style structure the company opts to use. Qantas airline nurtures its employees based on motivation and rewards according to their efforts through this it has witnessed a tremendous increase in productivity and profitability (Harrell, 2002). To achieve the main vision, there are certain core values and objectives that are unified to the current business exercises of Qantas, these are; Safeguarding safety in its operation Accurate aircraft and routes Provide quality customer service Task efficiency Strong complimentary brands Qantas Airline strategic plans and implementations The past, the present and the future situation of the company reveals its intention of the airline. The previous analysis indicates that Qantas originated in Winton, Queensland on November 15th, 1920. The immediate setups of the airline imply that the carrier functioned as air mailing services reinforced by the Australian government and was commonly recognized as associating terminuses in Western Queensland (Horovitz Johnson, 2011). Amongst 1926 and 1928, Qantas airline has developed several aircraft, and in the year 1935, Qantas carry travelers to the international destination as their first experience. At present, it offers air travel services worldwide, and the carrier has admission to numerous aircraft that have the capability to transport 500 travelers at a time. The major tactical development has become potential to the company after the Australian management vended the local transporter Australian Flag in 1992 followed by it in 1994, Qantas was privatized which has led to large acquisition of aircraft by Qantas to maximize its taskforce and terminuses, and the outcome effect is that the airline is recognized the top long terminus airline that attends mainstream of the areas across the world. However, the forthcoming result of the airline suggests that it pursues to achieve a greater level of growth as well as recognition within the entire airline industry (Ishikawa Naka, 2007). Even though, the past and the present presentation projections imply that the airline has achieved a higher level of growth, while the airline targets advanced intercontinental growth by performing agreements with extra major airlines like Malaysian Airline, a British airline, and South Africa airline. The flag also targets cheap cost air travel services through Jetstar subsidiary branch. Strategic implementations The section intends to provide strategic investigation with the requirement of its corporation and business level strategy (Lovelock Wirtz, 2016). For instance, Qantas strategies indicate that the major goals strategy of the implementation of services management is shown as; To achieve functioning proficiency through integrating. The company plans to be the top carrier in first-class with low-cost brands in Australia and internationally. It also focuses on operational efficiency by assimilating straightforwardness in its work developments and also focuses on improving output at the same time. Minimize risk strategies by Selecting the secure route for carrying the most effective navy flying is among the priority purpose of the airline. Although, the implementation strategies analysis of Qantas infers that the airline runs both corporate and business level. The corporate level strategy is to expand air travel services across the United Kingdom, United States of America and Asia which needs significant support from the different functional level of organization (Sheehan, 2011). Moreover, there is a critical role to be done by the significant functional areas like human resource department, finance, marketing, and sales also business and information technology department. Business and information technology alignment. The role of the technology important in the airline industry because the entire work largely depends on technology starting from booking tickets; manually or online and to protect passengers interest. Finance it plays an important role in allowing the airline to create a conducive and successful environment internally and externally. The long-term projects include expansion of the aircraft and acquisition of a new aircraft which requires massive financial resources. Human resource department. This department is required in recruiting skilled and talented employees to perform their daily routine with expert skill. Employee engagement strategies, Qantas plans to equip the strategic objectives for all the responsible departments when recruiting new staff know and consider tactical objectives for the departments, the quick investigation was done on the competencies by assessing the main skills needed now and the upcoming. Marketing and sales The service quality of the airline is proved by the customer's trust. and the airline has seen an increased number of new customers throughout the year. Furthermore, positive sales can be achieved through extra effort in order to attract more travelers through sales personnel efforts (Stecher, 2010). The company targets improve processes and performance management systems. The idea will fulfill the organization mission. Gap analysis Circulated and observed clearly, client data can have a powerful impact. Workers will understand what the customers need and expect from the company. Complaints and compliments from clients will be able to direct their improvements toward accomplishing those expectations. Thereafter, the company can design the correct types of process, develop the correct type of training, abolish waste that represents things customers do not require and deliver what is needed. A necessary method for organizing and presenting information used is gap analysis. These are; Service well-made gap- The analysis finds shows that the above functional level is important in improving Qantas performance and in purchasing new aircraft. This shows the difference between the service customers expect and the services they received. Analysis indicates that Qantas provide the quality service to their customers. Service delivery- Qantas airline delivers the best services despite what customers expect from them. They actually do their best to deliver quality work. Service design gap- Qantas might misunderstand the customers needs some expects everything to run smoothly while others are okay. Management understanding gap- shows what the customers expect and what management actually expects. They all have different views; customers expect less waiting at the airline, but management may perceive the dialog. Communication gap- The Company ensures that they have good communication service with their consumers to avoid unnecessary tasks or cancellation of flights. To remain committed towards cultural beliefs and its environment. The company plans to implement leadership principles according to how management plans controls, maintains and recruits staff members which will ensure that customers served accordingly. Challenges facing the company Poor innovative plane design, one of the major problems that affect the airline which is greatly contributed by expensive travel fare, the high cost of travel hider customer from traveling, so, reducing weight off craft is another way of reducing transportation cost. The company plans to implement the new hybrid design with features that include foldable wings that minimize fuel consumption. Consumer demands, economical tickets have increased up to 10% during the year, potentially turning off clients that can reach their destination in substitute ways (Verweire, 2014). Advancing airline into the 21st century, with the current technology, demands customers are required to print their own baggage labels at home, and most customers lack such skills. The scenario is safe and quick compared to the previous task which was time-consuming. Training new staff to handle increased population, the airline needs more staff, and according to analyses, airlines are facing huge challenges to find and train up pilots making the company to panic. New fuel, renewable energy sources from biological material, can replace the traditional fossil gas making it expensive for an airline to adopt new techniques. Lack of planning makes, the management should be ready and responsible for their customers. Planning will ensure that they are up to date. Competitors directly affect the company performance this is a serious threat to Qantas Airline. Advanced technology is a competitive challenge. Technology is spontaneously advancing at a high rate worldwide, and this creates a new field in the way the company carries out travel services. There is a lot of advance upgraded activity. The use of technology has changed how we view the appearance of airline services in the industrial area. There is tight competition because the new advanced equipment is replacing the current old ones. Some airlines provide refreshments, free Wi-Fi and iPad this is affecting customers, and they are starting to shift to another company because the management lacks enough money provide all those extra services and also to divert and embrace this new technology. This has greatly affected the Qantas Airline management. Challenges they face as customers behavior and demands change According to the marketing and the selling concepts, the tactics to marketing exist. The traditional selling concepts which stress that if a product is not selling more aggressive measures should be considered these might include reducing the price, improve advertising methods or employing new and aggressive sales-people. This is another challenge the company is facing the company; it is witnessed in the reduction of customers, the marketing concepts emphasizes on getting more customers regardless of whether to introduce new services or not. The theory of utility stresses that a service or a product to should be made more available to the client and useful to them in that if a customer buys a ticket, those tickets should be readily available to avoid failures. The theory of demands suggests that when the demand is high, the supply is high, so, when there is an increased number of passengers in the airline the company is not able to purchase more equips due to lack of capital and mismanagement of funds. Therefore, some customers are forced to change their date of travel causing inconveniences. The concepts of time management, Qantas airline does not always provide timely services due to power crackdown making the customers to panic. The management should equip more tool and employ more staff members in order to provide 24/7 services. Recommendation The significant characteristics of goal setting theory; the willingness to work is a motivating influence. Difficult tasks are a greater motivator than easy tasks. Qantas airlines should set clear goals to guide the service administration. Subordinates should commit to the set objectives. The advantage of having goals is that it increases incentives to complete tasks given to staffs also it leads to improved performance. Planning guides the organizations direction in order to meet the set objective. Managers must set rules and guidance that gives the institution directions. The airline has dreams and missions to accomplish. The goals set should be used by management and staff to do their tasks without supervision. In this case, mismanagement of capital monetary straightforwardness is dangerous in that it decreases the productivity of the company. Every business should train their employees on how to control money inflows and outflows in order to reduce risks that come along with mismanagement of funds in the organization Conclusion The management should encourage originality to gadget new ideas amongst employees. Creation of unique ideas gives support to customers and helps to win customers trust. The motivation theory and goal setting; this theory gives out the reputation of setting goals that direct the management in daily routine. The goals make staffs be more responsible for the workforce. References Ansoff, H. (2014).Strategic management. [Place of publication not identified]: Palgrave Macmillan. Belloc, H. (1967).On. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press. Chaffey, D. (2011).Internet marketing. Harlow [u.a.]: Prentice Hall Financial Times. Harrell, G. (2002).Marketing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horovitz, J., Johnson, G. (2011).Service strategy. Me?xico: Pearson Educacio?n. Ishikawa, A., Naka, I. (2007).Knowledge management and risk strategies. Hackensack, N.J.: World Scientific. Lovelock, C., Wirtz, J. (2016).Services marketing. Hackensack (NJ): World Scientific. Sadler, P. (2004).Strategic management. New-Delhi: Koganpage India Prt. Ltd. Sheehan, B. (2011).Basics Marketing 03. Lausanne: AVA Academia. Stecher, B. (2010).Toward a culture of consequences. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Verweire, K. (2014).Strategy implementation. London: Routledge.

Technological catastrophe Essay Example

Technological catastrophe Paper An environmental disaster is a natural disaster that few people will experience in their lifetime. These are relatively infrequent natural events that are the product of natural physical forces governing the earth and atmosphere. A technological catastrophe is a human made disaster, the result of some human error or miscalculation. These events are usually called disasters when there is a substantial degree of destruction and disruption and the events are uncontrollable either because they are natural disasters or because they represent the occasional loss of control over something which humans normally control very well. Psychologists have studied disasters and catastrophes in an attempt to ascertain what characterises a disaster and what the psychological effects of disaster and catastrophe.  It has been found that the characteristics of a disaster effect how people react. One important characteristic is the amount of warning available. Fritz Marks (1954) found that a lack of warning about a disaster can make the consequences worse, however Drabek Stephenson (1971) found that the effectiveness of repeated warnings of flash floods was undermined by factors such as families being separated at the time of warnings they showed more concern for locating each other than evacuating, and the method used to deliver warnings the news media reached the most people but was least effective in producing appropriate responses. We will write a custom essay sample on Technological catastrophe specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Technological catastrophe specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Technological catastrophe specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Psychologists have also studied peoples awareness and perception of the risks they face from natural disaster. One field study by Simms Baumann (1972) suggests that personality determines perception of risk. They found that residents of Alabama were more external in their locus of control, believing in the forces of fate rather than personal responsibility. These residents were less likely to take precautions such as listening to radio reports of weather and preparing for storms, than residents in Illinois, who had internal locus of control. Death rates from Tornadoes were higher in the southern areas (Alabaman) than in the mid west (Illinois) this suggests that personality factors affect peoples perceived risk from natural disaster. There have been many studies of the psychological effects of disaster. Bowman (1964) observed the responses of psychiatric patients to a massive earthquake in Alaska and found that initial responses were very positive, people wanted to help and there was an increased feeling of unity. This suggests that social cohesiveness may increase in response to disasters.  However many other negative effects have been found. Wood (1992) found earthquake survivors experienced twice as many nightmares as a control group of Ps from the university of Arizona who did not live near the earthquake. In a case study of survivors from the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster Joseph et al (1993) found increased levels of alcohol, cigarettes, sleeping pills, anti depressants and tranquilliser consumption, and these effects were still evident 30 months after the disaster.  This suggests that psychological effects of disasters may be widespread and long lasting.  In contrast to environmental disasters, evidence suggest that technological catastrophes do not increase social cohesion. Cuthbertson Nigg (1987) found people exposed to toxins (asbestos and pesticides) in two separate incidents in America, were divided into victims who were worried about the effects and those who were unconcerned. The difference in opinion was a basis for conflict and resentment, and no evidence was found of the development of supportive and cohesive groups. This was field experiment using interviews questionnaires and observations. However some research has found similarities in the effects of technological catastrophes and natural disasters, particularly in stress related problems. Davidson Baum (1986) studied people living near Three Mile Island at the time of a nuclear disaster and radiation leak. They found effects of stress 6 years after the event these included physiological measurements such as adrenalin levels and self-report measures such as sleep disturbance questionnaires. This research suggests people may suffer from the effects of catastrophes long after the event is over.  b) Evaluate what psychologists have learned about environmental disaster and/or technological catastrophe  The first evaluation issue is Methodology, and the fact that most of the research into disasters and catastrophes i   carried out after the event and therefore it is impossible to make comparisons of responses before the disaster. For example Woods (1992) findings of earthquake survivors suffering twice as many nightmares after the disaster than a control group, however there is no information on these people before the earthquake. IN COMPARISON Davidsons (1986) study of stress levels people living near Three Mile Island also could not compare these responses with pre disaster information. In CONTRAST Bowman (1964) was able to observe responses of psychiatric patients during and immediately after an event and made comparisons to their behaviour prior to the event. However in most cases research cannot make such comparisons.  The second evaluation issue is measurement, which is how psychologists actually measure the variables they are interested in. In disaster situations measurement is often difficult due to the chaotic conditions in which research is carried out. Cuthbertson Nigg (1987) used interviews, questionnaires and observations to try to measure social cohesiveness in two communities where technological catastrophes had occurred. These measurements may lack validity, which is being sure that a measurement actually does measure the variable it claims to measure, and reliability, which means the measurement being reliable over time, since the methods used may suffer from problems of social desirability responses and observer bias. In COMPARISON the measurements used by Simms Baumann were personality based questionnaires and interviews, and these may also lack validity and reliability, as these researchers used these measurements as an indication of perceived risk from natural disaster. In CONTRAST Davidson Baum (1986) used a range of both physiological and self-report measures of stress, and these measurements were high in validity and reliability.  The third evaluation issue is ethnocentrism, which means applying the norms found in one culture to the whole of the world. A great deal of research in disasters and catastrophes has been carried out in America and Europe, western cultures. For example Simms Baumanns research was carried out in Illinois and Alabama, but these researchers used their results to make generalisations about personality and perception of risk from disaster. In COMPARISON Bowmans research with psychiatric patients was carried out in Alaska, however Bowman also made generalisations about social cohesiveness in responses to disasters. It could be argued that in some cultures collectivism is already much greater than in western cultures that tend to be more individualistic, and therefore this research may be of little use in predicting responses to disaster globally. In further COMPARISON research in technological disasters and social cohesion by Cuthbertson Nigg (1987) was also carried out in America and again may be of little use in predicting how people may respond in other cultures. The fourth evaluation issue is sampling methods, that is the way in which psychologists have obtained a sample from their chosen population. The best sampling method to use is a random sample, where each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected. However in research carried out in the aftermath of some disaster or catastrophe this is rarely possible. Measurement must often be done quickly and therefore samples may be non-representative and can limit the extent to which generalisations can be made. In research carried out by Bowman an opportunity sample was used of psychiatric patients, and therefore generalisations from these individuals to other populations cannot really be made. In COMPARISON Wood (1992) also used an opportunity sample of earthquake survivors therefore it is not safe to generalise from these findings. In CONTRAST the study carried out by Simms Baumann was not conducted in the immediate aftermath of a disaster and could therefore have used random sampling methods such as the electoral role in order to select participants from the two areas compared.

Timeline of the Andean Cultures of South America

Timeline of the Andean Cultures of South America Archaeologists working in the Andes traditionally divide the cultural development of the Peruvian civilizations into 12 periods, from the Preceramic period (ca 9500 BC) through the Late Horizon and into the Spanish conquest (1534 CE). This sequence was initially created by archaeologists John H. Rowe and Edward Lanning and it was based on the ceramic style and radiocarbon dates from the Ica Valley of the South Coast of Peru, and later extended to the whole region. The Preceramic Period (before 9500–1800 BC), literally, the period before pottery was invented, spans from the first arrival of humans in South America, whose date is still debated, until the first use of ceramic vessels. The following eras of ancient Peru (1800 BC-AD 1534) have been defined by archaeologists using an alternation of so-called â€Å"periods† and â€Å"horizons† which end with the arrival of the Europeans. The term â€Å"Periods† indicates a timeframe in which independent ceramic and art styles were widespread across the region. The term â€Å"Horizons† defines, in contrast, periods in which specific cultural traditions managed to unify the whole region. Preceramic Period Preceramic Period I (before 9500 B.C.E.): First evidence of human occupation of Peru comes from groups of hunters of this tradition are the Chivateros (I) industry and the long and narrow Paijan points. Other important sites are Ushumachay, Telarmachay, Pachamachay.Preceramic Period III (8000–6000 B.C.E.): From this period, it is possible to recognize different cultural tradition, such as the Northwestern Tradition, where the site of Nanchoc dates to ca 6000 BC, the Paijan Tradition, the Central Andean Tradition, whose widespread lithic tradition has been found in many cave sites, such as the famous Lauricocha (I) and Guitarrero caves, and, finally, the Atacama Maritime Tradition, at the border between Peru and Chile, where the Chinchorro culture developed about 7000 years ago. Other important sites are Arenal, Amotope, Chivateros (II). Preceramic Period IV (6000–4200 B.C.E.): The hunting, fishing and foraging traditions developed during the previous periods continue. However, toward the end of this period, a climatic change allows for early plant cultivation. Important sites are Lauricocha (II), Ambo, Siches.Preceramic Period V (4200–2500 B.C.E.): This period corresponds to a relative stabilization of the sea level along with warmer temperatures, especially after 3000 BC. Increase in domesticated plants: squashes, chili peppers, beans, guavas and, most of all, cotton. Important sites are Lauricocha (III), Honda.Preceramic Period VI (2500–1800 B.C.E.): The last of the Preceramic periods is characterized by the emergence of monumental architecture, population increase, and widespread production of textiles. Different cultural traditions are recognizable: in the highlands, the Kotosh tradition, with the sites of Kotosh, La Galgada, Huaricoto, and along the coast, the monumental sites of Caral  S upe / Norte Chico tradition, including Caral, Aspero, Huaca Prieta, El Paraiso, La Paloma, Bandurria, Las Haldas, Piedra Parada. Initial through Late Horizon Initial Period (1800 – 900 B.C.E.): This period is marked by the appearance of pottery. New sites emerge along the coastal valleys, exploiting the rivers for cultivation. Important sites of this period are Caballo Muerto, in the Moche valley, Cerro Sechin and Sechin Alto in the Casma valley; La Florida, in the Rimac valley; Cardal, in the Lurin valley; and Chiripa, in the Titicaca basin.Early Horizon (900 – 200 B.C.E.): The Early Horizon sees the apogee of Chavin de Huantar in the northern highland of Peru and the successive widespread of the Chavin culture and its artistic motifs. In the South, other important sites are Pukara and the famous coastal necropolis of Paracas.Early Intermediate Period (200 B.C.E. –600 C.E.): The Chavin influence wanes by 200 BC and the Early Intermediate period sees the emergence of local traditions like the Moche, and Gallinazo in the north coast, the Lima culture, in the central coast, and Nazca, in the south coast. In the northern highlands, the Marcahuamachuco and Recuay traditions arose. Huarpa tradition flourished in the Ayacucho basin, and in the southern highlands, Tiwanaku arose in the Titicaca basin. The Middle Horizon (600–1000 C.E.): This period is characterized by climatic and environmental changes in the Andean region, brought about by cycles of droughts and El Nià ±o phenomenon. The Moche culture of the north underwent a radical reorganization, with the move of its capital farther north and inland. In the center and south, the Wari society in the highland and Tiwanaku in the Titicaca basin expanded their dominion and cultural traits to the whole region: Wari toward north and Tiwanaku toward the southern zones.The Late Intermediate Period (1000–1476 C.E.): This period is signified by a return to independent polities governing different areas of the region. In the north coast, the Chimà º society with its huge capital Chan Chan. Still on the coast the Chancay, Chincha, Ica, and Chiribaya. In the highland regions, the Chachapoya culture arose in the north. Other important cultural traditions are the Wanka, who opposed a fierce resistance to the first expansion o f the Inca.Late Horizon (1476–1534 C.E.): This period spans from the emergence of the Inca empire, with the expansion of their dominion outside the Cuzco region until the arrival of the Europeans. Among important Inca sites are Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Ollantaytambo.

Can Electronic Documents Be Used As Evidence International Law Essay

Can Electronic Documents Be Used As Evidence International Law Essay Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work produced by our Law Essay Writing Service . You can view samples of our professional work here . Can Electronic Documents Be Used As Evidence International Law Essay I have noted that, there was a problem of accepting electronic document as primary evidence. But in the Written Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act, 2007, Part IX accepted partly in criminal matters and in banking transactions, where now the major problem lays on its practicability, specifically on authentication of the electronic document to be applied as good as primary evidence in determining matters in issues. ABSTRACT Text books, electronic sources, legislations of different jurisdictions are very important in finding ways of solving challenges facing the admissibility of electronic evidence in Tanzania. They play a big role in finding accurate and proper ways and solutions faced in legal system. Evidence is information that tends to prove or disprove a fact or matter in issue , from which an inference may logically be drawn as to the existence of a fact. It consists of proof by testimony of witnesses on oath or by writing or records. Evidence is a crucial element in judiciary as it is used to determine matters of controversy in cases. .In determining controversy/ matter(s), judge(s) prefer direct evidence such as an official document or a witness’s assertion of his/her immediate knowledge of the question at issue. Cyber Law is the law which regulates cyberspace or internet transactions. It encompassing cases, statutes, regulations and disputes that affect people and business interaction through computers, and it addresses issues of online speech and business; also due to the nature of the medium it including intellectual property rights, free speech, privacy, e-commerce and safety, as well as questions of jurisdiction. The quick innovation of science and technology; resulted to lots of changes in the world, regional state, individual states and even directly to the individual person. People’s interactions mostly influenced by trading (commerce) education, political or gove rnments’ communication, socially and economically. The most current and fast way of such interaction is through Internet, computers, and wireless telephones. Most state laws have not been amended to accommodate such new relationship, on the point of evidence and jurisdiction. In Tanzania, regardless recognizing and using Internet and computers online in economic and business, like electronic banking for example ATM (Automatic Teller Machines) Tembo card cash point, our laws took long time to recognize Electronic Evidence as the best evidence or as primary evidence. This problem did not end only in the statutes but also in the case law where in most cases the court rejected secondary evidence. For example in the case of Shirin Rajabali Jessa v. Alipio Zorilla, where court, only accepted under a lot of restriction. Currently the Tanzania Law of Evidence Act was amended to accommodate Electronic Evidence. Primary evidence is the best evidence and mostly courts rely on it in givi ng out the decision. Being the best evidence it is also used in electronic cases (disputes) in one way or another but in many cases Electronic Evidence is found to be grouped in secondary evidence which has a lot of challenges toward its admissibility.

Strategic Management Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Management Process - Essay Example The major contribution of performance management is its focus on achieving results - making use of the best tools to success and useful products and services for customers inside and outside the organization. In other words, performance management is not just being busy, but it is of how much of the work is effective in achieving the goals of the organization. Today, organizations have goals, plans and resource management. In order to achieve specific goals of an organization, it is essential that they need to have strategic management. Recently, organizations have been faced with challenges like never before and those organizations which utilize strategic management practices are generally more effective than those who do not. Further, this increasing competition from businesses across the world has meant that all businesses must be much more careful about the choice of strategies to remain competitive. Therefore, small and large organizations put more focus on effectiveness to put systems and processes in the right way to the right things to achieve the predetermined results. This is the only way to claim that the organization and its various parts are really performing (McNamara n.pag, 1997). In simple terms strategic management is the process of specifying an organization's aims and objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve it, and allocating resources so as to implement the plans. Strategic management is the highest level of managerial activity, which is generally performed by the top leaders of an organization. It provides an overall direction to the whole organization, leading them all to achieve a set goal/s. An organization's strategy must be best suited for its resources, circumstances, and to achieve its objectives. The process involves matching the company's strategic advantages to the business environment the organization faces. Training each and every individual to perform the individual targets is also am important step in this process. In general the goal of corporate strategy is to put the organization into a position to carry out its mission effectively and efficiently. Hence a good corporate strategy should combine an organization's goals, poli cies, and action into a complete package of success (Wikipedia n.pag, 2007). In general a corporate strategy can be described as an organizations sense of purpose - a guiding purpose or policy, or it can also be a focused mission statement, or even a philosophy, for the achievement of an objective. It is the mapping out of future directions that need to be adopted using the resources possessed. The study of corporate strategy is a relatively recent phenomenon. Edith Penrose (1959) was one of the pioneers in academics to argue that what happened inside the firm was just as important as the marketplace outside the firm. Till then the main focus of economics had been upon the marketplace outside the firm, with a detailed consideration of market demand and supply issues. Penrose argued that the growth of the firm was related to its use of resources, its past history and its evolution over time; previous history was a key influence on future development. The US strategist Alfred Chandler (1962) also published a substantial study regarding the growth of the firm. H e argued, in support of Penrose, that the development of an organization over time is an essential element in understanding strategy. The implementation

Foreign Intelligence Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Foreign Intelligence Organization - Essay Example In the past, these countries focused their efforts on getting intelligence concerning the United States Military capabilities, as well as military research and development activities. Today, these nations also collect technical, scientific, proprietary and economic information. The information collected is aimed at promoting the national welfare of these nations and also acquiring and maintaining highly developed military systems. These countries have the ability of collecting U.S. intelligence information using Human Intelligence (HUMINT), Signal Intelligence (SIGINT), and by analyzing open source material.1 Other countries also have the ability to collect imagery products that can be used to collect Image Intelligence (IMINT). It is essential to note that only the Russian Federation gathers space-borne intelligence. 1The People’s Republic of China also has this ability though to a rather limited extent. Therefore, Russia remains to be the nation that poses the most significa nt intelligence collection threat to the U.S. Russia has immense intelligence capability that was inherited from former Soviet Union. A large proportion of Russia’s intelligence collection infrastructure is focused on collecting information relating to the U.S. The Russian Federation uses SIGINT, HUMINT, IMINT, MASINT, and open source analysis. This is used to develop intelligence products for military planners and Russian political leaders. According to the federal Bureau of Investigation, Russian intelligence operations have increased in sophistication, scope, and number.2 They are likely to remain at this high level for the near future. The bodies legally responsible for foreign intelligence functions in Russia include the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), the Main Intelligence Directorate of General Staff (GRU) and the Federal Agency for Government Communications and Information (FAPSI). SVR mainly collects scientific, political, technical and economic informati on. Majority of case officers working for SVR operate from Russian Embassies and consulates under diplomatic cover. Though alleged that SVR personnel have been reduced by 30%, active collection operations continue, and suspicion that SVR influences operations, and conduct propaganda is rife.2 The GRU mainly provides strategic and tactical intelligence for the Russian Military.2 They collect warning intelligence, important information on military capabilities of likely adversaries, and data on superior military technologies. Their collection techniques include HUMINT, both overt and clandestine, open sources, satellite imagery reconnaissance, SIGINT from ships, ground stations aircrafts and satellites. Collection activities that significantly threaten U.S interests are those under the Space Intelligence Directorate and First Deputy Chief.3 The Space Intelligence Directorate, in conjunction with the Fleet Intelligence Direction, manages Russia’s space reconnaissance program. Th e SDI operates many research institutes, its own cosmodromes, and a centralized computer processing facility. FAPSI’s main role is communications security for Russia.2 Russia continues to place emphasis on HUMINT.3 This is because of the information they gathered from the past. It is